Pranayama – An open space indigenously populated with plants at an early morning set up, a water body flowing by or a range of mountain would be a more panoramic add-on to this… A yoga mat spread out right in the midst of all this with a yoga practitioner sitting upright with his legs folded, one of his hands rested on his knees and the other hand covers his nose. The only animating elements in this entire still and tranquil set up are his two fingers – his thumb and his ring finger that taking rounds alternatively on his two nostrils… This is the picture that we have in our mind when we hear the word Pranayama. This is our perception of practicing Pranayama. Isn’t it?
Well, of course, it is not just limited to this one practice that we discussed right now. It is a good eight to nine of them that the millennial populace around the world has been oriented to.
But why do we do Pranayama? What does it sitting still; and breathing in and out in so many different ways does to our body and mind? Does it help us with our health issues or reduce weight? Or does it help to relax our minds?
Well turns out, Pranayama has a much deeper and profound impact on our entire being. How? Let’s find out.
Sadguru Jaggi Vasudeva opines:
“The word Pranayama comprised of two words – prana and yama. Prana is the vital energy or life energy. It is the very element inside a mortal frame that keeps it alive. This ‘prana’ has ten different manifestations in the body.
But for the sake of understanding, we will bring it down to five – the five ‘vayus’ or the ‘panchvayus’ that runs the entire mechanism of the human body. These are prana vayu, samana vayu, udhana vayu, aphana and vyana that together govern the different dimensions of the human physiology. Yama means to control or take charge.
Hence literally Pranayama means the regime that teaches you to take charge of this ‘pancha vayus’ within yourself.”
The primary sustainer of this vital energy or life energy is our breath. Hence our breath has a profound impact on our health and well being. If we learn to use our breath in a proper manner, this alone can help us optimize the modus operandi of body, mind, and soul. And the techniques that help is to learn to use our breath in the best possible manner come under Pranayama.
In Hatha Yoga, there is the mention of 8 Pranayama that comes in the fourth state of Hatha Yoga. The other seven limbs of Hatha Yoga include Yama, Niyama, Asana (the three limbs that precede Pranayama); followed by the next four limbs, namely – Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi.
Impact of Pranayama on Human Body, Mind and Soul
In the initial phase of practicing Pranayama, we start feeling energetic and alert. Our body posture changes, our breathing pattern changes and so do our temperament.
However, this is just the tip of the ice-berg. A few days into the practice, you will find your diseases and ailments getting healed. You start finding yourself in the best of your health and spirit. Your mental tenacity and immunity of your body will be enhanced in a manifold manner. Only when your mind and body have become absolutely robust, you can move on to enhance your spiritual consciousness.
Pranayama helps us to elevate from the physical limitations of the body. One of the experienced Yogi who had been practicing Pranayama for years had shared –
“If you practice Pranayama, a whole new universe opens up in front of you. You can literally move out of your physical frame and look at yourself from above.”
Hearing him speak about moving out and watching yourself in such a spontaneous manner, I had felt as if it was as simple as like moving in and out of the house we live in. Well, no matter how much unbelievable it may sound; Pranayama can help us to make it happen.
Going further, Pranayama helps to make your vital energy or life energy more refined and subtle. Like it is written in the ancient Indian scriptures and even modern science is beginning to accept the same. That is the entire creation is just different manifestations of one energy. In Indian scriptures, it is called God. This energy is present as much in mud as much as it is present in a dewdrop. What makes it differ from one another is the level of refinement of the same energy that is present in it.
For example, mud is a lump of solid loaded with inertia whereas the dewdrop is crystal clear to the point that it can capture the reflection of the sun in itself.
Hence, the process to move from inertia to a higher and higher level of energy can be accentuated by practicing Pranayama. It prepares the body, mind and life energy (prana) to work in unison to achieve this subtlety and refinement.
The 8 Pranayama – How to do and their benefits?
We were sitting in an office yoga session and the instructor threw a question at us. How do you think Pranayama can help you? We, with our limited knowledge, answered – it can help us reduce our weight; it can help us control diabetes, thyroid and blood pressure; treat infertility, etc.
A smile appeared on the instructor’s face. It was a scorching summer afternoon. The instructor threw his next question –
“If I switch off the fan and the air conditioner of this room, will you be able to survive?”
We shook our head unanimously and answered in a determined chorus, “No.”
There was a knowing smile on the instructor’s face. He said in a soft voice – “One of the things Pranayama can help you to do is to feel cool and comfortable on a hot and humid day like this without the help of a fan or an air-conditioner. I can also help you to keep your body warm on a cold winter night without any warm clothes or a fireplace or a room heater.”
I still remember the look on his face as he cherished the view of our eyes popping out at his revelation about Pranayama.
Now let’s learn about the different Pranayama and how they can help us to achieve higher levels of consciousness.
1. Surya Bhedana Pranayama
The first in this order is Surya Bhedana or Right Nostril Breathing. As the name suggests, Surya Bhedana literally translates to Piercing the Sun. It helps to balance the Sun energy also known as the Pingala Nadi in the human body.
What does it do?
- The place of Sun in the human body is said to be in the navel. Hence, naval is the place where the Sun energy originates. On the physiological level, it helps to energize the organs around the naval area thereby regulating our digestive organs.
- The Sun energy or the Pingala Nadi has its origin at the base of the spine which is base for the Kundalini Shakti and also the Root or Muladhara Chakra. Surya Bhedana Pranayam helps to activate the Kundalini Shakti or the Muladhara Chakra.
How to Practice?
- Sit in the crossed leg in Sukhasana or Padmasana with your spine erect and your chin up.
- Make sure your spine and head are aligned to make a straight line.
- Your left hand should be rest, palm facing upward in Gyan Mudra and your right hand should form the Mrigi Mudra where your index finger and middle finger are folded inward; and the ring finger, little finger, and thumb are extended outward.
- Now block your left nostril with your ring finger and little finger while breathing from your right nostril.
- Breathe is slowly and block your right nostril as well. Hold the breath for as long as you can hold it comfortably. Avoid forcing yourself to hold the breath for a longer duration.
- Then release your left nostril and breathe out slowly. You will feel hot air coming out of your left nostril.
- Repeat this Pranayama for at least five to ten times.
FAQ
Q. What should be the individual duration for inhaling, retain and exhale?
To begin with, keep the duration of breathing in and out the same while retaining the breath for as long as you can retain it comfortably. But ideally, the exhalation should be double the duration of inhalation and retention – double the duration of exhalation.
Q. When is the best time to practice Surya Bhedana?
Surya Bhedana should ideally be done early in the morning empty stomach or any time of the day after 4-5 hours of taking a meal.
Q. Who should avoid this?
People with a heart condition, epilepsy or high blood pressure should refrain from doing Surya Bhedana Pranayama.
2. Sitkari Pranayama
Sitkari or Hissing Breath is a very effective exercise to get rid of the fatigue and discomfort on a hot summer day as well as de-stress the mind.
What it does?
The word Sitkari refers to ‘hissing’ sound. It is said that the snake makes such hissing sound to release the stress. If done in a proper manner, Sitkari has an immense tranquilizing effect on the mind while cooling down the body. In short,
- It helps to get rid of the excess heat in the body and mind.
- Sitkari is particularly beneficial for the brain and the nervous system.
- Helps hypertensive conditions.
- Balances pitta dosha in the body thereby promoting good health.
- Promotes vitality and youthfulness.
How to do it?
- Sit cross-legged with your spine, neck, and head aligned to make a straight line.
- Keep your hand rested on your knees in Gyan Mudra.
- Now join your upper and lower teeth, part your lips to ensure a free flow of air into your mouth, curl your tongue to touch the tip of the tongue to the upper palate or just let it loose inside your mouth.
- Then take a slow and deep breath through your teeth.
- Feel the cool air coming inside your mouth through the gaps of your teeth, filling up your abdomen, chest, and neck in the exact order as it is mentioned here.
- Make hissing sound as you take the air in through your teeth. And now close your mouth and exhale through your nose.
Kumbhaka or Sitkari with breath Retention
After the inhalation, close your mouth and hold the breath for as long as you can hold it comfortably. Then exhale slowly for an extended time duration. Ideally, the ratio of time duration between the inhalation and exhalation is 1: 2 or 1:4. It means that the time taken for exhaling should be at least double or quadruple of the time that is taken to inhale the air.
Jalandhara Bandha
While in the Kumbhaka stage, lower your chin to touch your chest and lock it there. Hold your breath in this position for as long as you can do it comfortably.
FAQ
Q. When is the right time to practice Sitkari?
Ideally, Sitkari should be practiced during the summer season and avoided during the winter. This Pranayama should ideally be done after completing the entire yogasana or some high-intensity exercise such as weight training to relax the body and mind after a rigorous workout.
Q. Who should avoid it?
Refrain from practicing Sitkari if you have low blood pressure, bronchitis, asthma or if you are suffering from cold and cough. It may aggravate such health conditions. Also avoid Sitkari if you suffer from gastric problems, constipation or tooth sensitivity.
Q. When should it be avoided?
Sitkari should never be practiced in a polluted place.
3. Sitali Pranayama
Sitali Pranayama is also known as the cooling breath. It comes from the word ‘Sheetal’ which means cooling or soothing.
This pranayama helps us to release all the stress and toxin from our body and mind thereby helping to find a stable and tranquil state.
In Hatha Yoga Pradapika, Sitali has been prescribed as yogic breathing that helps to moisten and balance the human system.
What is does?
A recent report has proved that Sitali has an incredible impact on the human brain. It is said to have increased the alpha, delta and theta waves power which are the characteristics of a stable and calm mind while bringing down the beta wave power which is noticed in a stress full and anxious mind. Hence this Pranayama is an effective stress buster.
- It also helps to find relief during fever by bringing down the body temperature. You can bust the heat and humidity during the summer season.
- People with high blood pressure and insomnia can also benefit from Sitali Pranayam.
- It also helps o reduce hair-fall.
How to do it?
- Like every other Pranayama, sit in a relaxed position in Sukhasana, Padmasana or Vajrasana with your spine, neck, and head erect.
- Rest your hands on your knees in Gyan Mudra.
- For the first two to three times breathe in through your mouth and breathe out through your nose.
- Once you have warmed up to this inhalation and exhalation technique, it is time to move on to the next step.
- Bring your tongue out and roll it from the sides to give it the shape of a tube.
- Start breathing in through your tongue that is shaped like a tube.
- Now hold the breath as well the position while lowering your chin to touch your chest to form Jalandhara Bandha.
- Hold this position for at least 6-8 seconds. Lift up your chin, pull in your tongue, close your mouth and exhale through your nostrils.
- This inhalation, retention, and exhalation make one complete round of Sitali Pranayama.
FAQ
Q. What if you can’t roll your tongue?
In case you can’t roll your tongue or keep it rolled for a longer duration, just keep it flattened near the mouth and make an O with your lips. In case you are not even being able to practice through this method, it is recommended to practice Sitkari.
Q. What should be the time duration of breathing in, retaining and breathing out?
Ideally, the time taken to breathe out should be double the time taken to breathe in. However, it is advisable to start with a ration of 2:3 ratio between inhalation and exhalation and then gradually move on to double the time for exhalation.
Q. When is the right time for practicing Sitali?
It is best to practice Sitali in an empty stomach. Initially, it can be practiced five times a day which can be increased to a maximum 10 times a day.
Q. When to avoid this?
Sitali should be strictly avoided during the winters as it may trigger respiratory problems.
Q. Who should avoid this?
People with fluctuating blood pressure, chronic constipation, migraine, asthma, chest congestion or cold and cough should avoid doing Sitali. People with cardiac ailments should consult a doctor before doing Sitali and do it only under expert guidance.
4. Brahmari Pranayama
Brahmari comes from the word ‘Bhanwar’ which means bee. While doing this Pranayama, the exhalation is done making a humming sound that replicated the sound made by the humming bees. Understandably, the other name of Brahmari Pranayama is called the Humming Bee Breath.
When our mind is cluttered and looking for respite, all we need is to fill it with some positive vibrations that would replace the clutter and negativities.
Brahmari and the sound of the humming bee we make through our mind helps us to clear our mind and regain its semblance. It is mentioned in Hatha Yoga Pradapika that this Pranayama flow wave of ecstasy in Yogindras mind.
What it does?
- Brahmari Pranayama has a profound effect on the human brain. It is said to enhance the alpha, theta and gamma brainwaves which in turn enhances our mental stability, creativity and healing capacity.
- Promotes heart health and helps to bring down blood pressure.
- Brahmari Pranayama helps to activate the pituitary gland. It is considered to be a preparatory step for meditation and hence has a tranquilizing effect on the nerve, thereby helping to cope with insomnia.
- Relief pain during pregnancy and helps expecting mothers to become emotionally strong.
- Improves the hearing capacity and enhances the body’s immunity to treat fungal, bacterial and viral infections.
- Brahmari practiced with Jalandhhara Bandha also helps to cure thyroid.
How to do it?
There are three distinct variations of the Brahmari Pranayama, namely – Basic Brahmari Pranayama, Silent Brahmari Pranayama and Shanmukhi Brahmari Pranayama.
- Basic Brahmari Pranayama – Sit comfortably with your spine erect and your head aligned with your spine in a straight line. Block both your ears by placing your index finger on your ear cartilage to make sure that no outside sound can enter your ears. Now take a slow and deep breath to fill your stomach. Part your teeth and close your lips. Now exhale through your nose as you make a humming sound from your throat as if you are trying to recite ‘Ouummmm’ with your mouth closed. Feel the vibration through your entire body.
- Silent Brahmari – After doing the Basic Brahmari Pranayama for five to six times, when you just sit down quietly thinking about the vibrating sound in your mind without actually doing it, it is known as the Silent Brahmari.
- Brahmari in Shanmukhi Mudra – In Shanmukhi Mudra you cover your ears with your thumb, your index finger placed just above your eyebrows, your middle, ring and little finger cupping on your eyes. Now take a deep breath and then exhale it out making a humming sound just as you did for the basic step. Repeat this for seven to nine times. Then sit quietly with your eyes closed and feel the ‘prana’ vibrating within your entire existence. Feel the healing and calming effect it renders to your mind and body.
FAQ
Q. When is the ideal time to practice Brahmari Pranayama?
The best time to practice Brahmari is the early morning. It is advisable not to practice this pranayama even after 3-4 hours of having a heavy meal.
Q. What are the precautions that are to be taken while practicing Brahmari Pranayama?
Make sure not to put pressure on any of the points that you put your finger on. Don’t put your finger into the ears. Keep your lips slightly parted as you exhale. Try not to forcefully prolong the duration of exhalation.
5. Bhastrika Pranayama
It is said that Bhastrika Pranayama rejuvenates each and every dormant cell in our body by maximizing the inflow of oxygen in it. As opposed to the average 500 ml oxygen that an ordinary person inhales in a day, practicing Bhastrika Pranayama can take it to a whopping 5000-10000 ml of oxygen intake during the same duration.
Hence, indisputably, Bhastrika Pranayama is a very powerful and energetic yogic breathing technique involving deep breathing through the nostrils.
Bhastrika Pranayama is also known as the Bellows Breath as the breathing techniques resemble the ways fires were fanned in ancient times with the help of a tool called bellows. It involves quick and heavy breathing using the lungs.
What it does?
- Just like the blowing air through the bellows help the fire to flare up, Bhastrika Pranayama makes our abdominal muscles and diaphragm to expand and contract vigorously. In this process, the first area of impact is the navel area which in turn aids in enhancing the capacity of the digestive organs.
- Bhastrika also helps to detoxify body and mind. It relaxes the brain, helps to strike a balance of the three doshas namely, Vitta, Pitta and Kapha.
- It helps people with hypertension to lower their blood pressure and also strengthens the lungs.
Types of Bhastrika Pranayama
Bhastrika Pranayama can be classified into three types depending on the pace of breathing, namely;
- The fast-paced,
- Medium-paced and
- Slow-paced Bhastrika Pranayama.
Fast-Paced Bhastrika is meant for the young guns with an active and energetic body. It entails vigorous movement of the abdominal muscles and strong hissing sound during the inhalation-exhalation process.
Medium Paced – People suffering from migraine and back pain should opt for Medium Paced Bhastrika. In this mode, the practitioner needs to focus on the air that is being breathed in and out. A mild hissing sound can be heard.
The Slow-Paced Bhastrika Pranayama is prescribed from aged people or the ones who are suffering from heart ailments or high blood pressure condition. The breathing pattern is kept very slow in this variant.
How to do it?
- Sit straight in Padmasana with your hands resting on your knees.
- Take a few deep breaths to warm up your system and gradually set the pace for rapid breathing.
- Take quick and vigorous breathe to fill your chest and abdomen and then exhale with the same force.
- Your chest should rise up and down, your stomach muscles expand and contract as you inhale and exhale.
- One round of inhalation and exhalation is counted as one breath of Bhastrika.
Variation in Practicing Bhastrika Pranayama
In the modern variation of Bhastrika Pranayama, the hands are closed to make a fist. Start by breathing in and out involving your lungs and abdominal muscles to get your system oriented towards the whole process. Now, as you inhale forcefully expanding your chest and abdominal muscles, raise your hands upwards opening your fist. Then as you exhale, contract your chest and stomach muscles, bringing your hands down by the sides of your shoulder forming the fist all over again.
[arve url=”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB6-PB9YLHs” align=”center” maxwidth=”600″ /]FAQ
Q. What should be the inhalation and exhalation ratio?
For the fast-paced variant, the ratio for breathing in and out should ideally take one second each; for the medium-paced, it should be 2.5 seconds and for slow-paced, the time duration for inhalation and exhalation should be 5 seconds each.
Q. How many times should one practice Bhastrika Pranayama?
Ideally, Bhastrika should be practiced for at least 30 rounds. However, it would be very tiring and might make you breathless in the initial stages. Hence, it is advisable to do 10 rounds – take a break by taking a few normal breaths and then do the next set of 10 breaths.
Q. How to relax after practicing Bhastrika Pranayama?
It is advisable to practice Sitali or Sitkari to cool down your body and mind after practicing Bhastrika Pranayama.
Q. Who should avoid practicing Bhastrika?
People with a heart ailment, high blood pressure, hernia, epilepsy, panic disorder and the severe back problem should refrain from practicing Bhastrika Pranayama.
Q. What precautions should be taken?
It is advisable not to over-do Bhastrika during the summer, especially by people with pitta dosha, as it generates heat within the body.
6. Moorcha Pranayama
Moorcha – as the name suggests fainting, this yogic practice makes you feel dizzy. It is also called the ‘swooning breath’, which helps you to feel lightheaded through a very soothing and balanced breathing technique that helps to rejuvenate your body and mind. This is a technique that makes your mind thoughtless. Hence, it is a very effective pre-meditative step
What it does?
- Moorcha Pranayama helps us to disconnect from the external world and look within ourselves.
- It calms the mind, enhances the concentration power, helps to eradicate negative emotions, activates the Ida, Pingala and the Sushumna Nadi.
- It helps to strengthen the muscles and is an effective cure for headaches.
How to do it?
- Sit upright in Sukhasana or Padmasana, place your hands on your knees comfortably and relax your whole body. Close your eyes.
- Breathe in and breathe out in a relaxed manner slowly drawing your attention to your breath.
- Now roll your tongue backward and lock it on the upper plate of your mouth. Then start inhaling slowly through your nostrils.
- Slowly tilt your head backward and try to gaze at the point in between your eyebrows. Keep inhaling slowly while performing internal breath retention or kumbhaka.
- Now bring your head down until your chin touches your chest. Hold your breath while performing Jalandhar bandha. Retain the breath for as long as you can do it comfortably. Then when you start feeling dizzy, breathe the retained air out slowly.
- Repeat this yogic breathing until you feel complete dizzy. After this sit upright and continue the inhalation-exhalation process in a relaxed manner. You can start meditating at this stage.
FAQ
Q. When is the ideal time to practice Moorcha?
Ideally, Moorcha Pranayama should be practiced early morning in an empty stomach or there should be a gap of 3-4 hours after the meal.
Q. Who should avoid it?
People with low or high blood pressure, epilepsy, heart disease, Glaucoma or heart ailment should ideally refrain from practicing Moorcha Pranayama. Also if you ever lose your consciousness while doing this Pranayama, you should stop it immediately.
7. Ujjayi Pranayama
Out of the 8 Pranayama mentioned in Hatha Yoga Pradapike, Ujjayi Pranayama gets a special mention as a breathing technique that helps to overcome death and decay. Ujjayi means victorious. This yogic breathing technique helps us to rise above your bondages. Hence it signifies the victorious breathing practice that helps us to attain freedom from bondage.
What it does?
The thyroid gland is a very vital point in our body. It plays an important role in maintaining balance in the emotion and nervous system. Ujjayi Pranayama helps to keep the Thyroid gland healthy which in turn helps to regulate innumerable medical conditions such as hypo or hyperthyroid conditions, sleep apnea, snoring, emotional imbalance, Sinusitis, Parkinson’s disease.
How to do it?
Before, you jump into Ujjayi breathing right away, preparing your mind and body for this technique. Place your hand in front of your mouth. Open your mouth and exhale through your mouth right on your palm. Now keeping your mouth open and inhale through your mouth, while contracting the back of your throat. Repeat this exercise for a couple of rounds as a preparatory step before starting the Ujjayi Pranayama.
- Sit upright comfortably with your legs folded in a Padmasana or Sukhasana.
- Place your hands on your knees, close your mouth. Contract your throat muscles and start inhaling through your nose.
- Feel the breath pass through your stiffened throat as if it is passing through a hole in the throat. Focus on your breath as you breathe in through your nostrils and direct it to make its way through your constricted throat muscles.
- Hold the breath and touch your chin to your chest in Jalandhara Bandha. Retain as long as you can do it comfortably.
- Lift your head and exhale it through your left nostril.
- Ujjayi Pranayam should ideally be carried out for 3-5 minutes.
FAQ
Q. How long or how many rounds should Ujjayi Pranayam be practiced?
Normally it is good enough to practice it 7 times up to 11 times. To begin with, practice five rounds of Ujjayi Pranayam.
Q. What not to do while practicing Ujjayi Pranayama?
You should not exert yourself while practicing Ujjayi Pranayama. Remain within your physical limitations and gradually develop your system to increase the intensity.
Q. Who should avoid practicing Ujjayi Pranayama?
Ujjayi Pranayama should be strictly prohibited by a pregnant woman.
8. Plavini Pranayama
Plavini Pranayama seems to be very simple to see it demonstrated. However, the jack lies in the detailing and the focus on the breath that helps to yield the best results out of it. Plavini Pranayama is also known as the floating breath. Hence it is a yogic breathing technique that makes your body so light that you can almost feel like floating like a leaf on the water surface.
The main differentiator for this Pranayama that sets it apart from the other yogic breathing techniques is that it entails breathing as if you are swallowing the air in the way you drink water. This air that you swallow fills your stomach it gives you the feel of being bloated and thus develops the feeling of being feather-light so much so that you can float on water.
What it does?
- The air that we breathe in and out is the main source and sustainer of prana inside our body. The role of food and water comes after. Practicing Plavini helps us to use the air in such a way that we are able to survive without food or water for several days.
- Enhances the blood flow, detoxifies our body and soothes the brain cells.
- Helps to improve vitality and also aids in the process of digestion.
How to do?
- Sit in a relaxed position with your back straight and head held high. Attain Sambhavi Mudra by focusing on the area between your two eyebrows.
- Before starting Plavini Pranayama, take a few deep breaths. Fill your lungs and abdomen as you breathe in and contract it naturally as you breathe out.
- Now start by taking a deep breath through your nostril filling your lungs and abdomen. Expand your chest and abdomen to accentuate your capacity to inhale. However, take care not to put too much pressure on your heart.
- Now hold the breath and lock your chin to your chest in Jalandhara Bandha. Hold the breath for as long as you can hold it comfortably.
- Then slowly lift your head, release the breath and relax. This makes one round of Plavini Pranayama.
FAQ
Q. When is the right time to do Plavini?
It is advisable to have a gap of at least 5-6 hours after taking a meal. The best time to practice Plavini is early morning in an empty stomach.
Q. What not to do?
Don’t overexert your capacity to hold breath. And for beginners, it is advisable to do it under expert guidance.
Q. Who should avoid it?
People with a heart ailment, high blood pressure, hernia, and hydrocele should ideally refrain from practicing Plavini Pranayama.
Final Words
With that, we arrive at the conclusion of our discussion on Pranayama. Pranayama is science too deep for us to understand. The air that we inhale and exhale has unfathomable power to transform our whole existence. In this write-up, we have barely touched the tip of the iceberg.
Nevertheless, we have embarked on the journey. Thank you for reading this article. Please share your views and also let us know if you want us to discuss on some particular topic pertaining to Yoga. We will soon be sharing yet another equally insightful article on yoga. Until then stay well and learn to value your breath.
Namaste!
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